med yacht engineering

The 5 tragic minutes that sank a superyacht

PORTICELLO, Italy — Survivors of a storm that sank a superyacht off Sicily recounted their ordeal to one of the doctors who rushed to their aid, with some saying it took mere minutes for the 180-foot ship to go down.

Dr. Fabio Genco, head of the Palermo Emergency Medical Services, told NBC News on the phone Thursday that he arrived in the seaside village of Porticello before dawn Monday, about an hour after the $40 million Bayesian sank in the violent and sudden storm.

Of the 22 people onboard, 15 survived despite storm conditions and darkness, climbing onto a lifeboat before being rescued by a nearby sailboat. The crew members have made no public statements so far, though some have been interviewed by investigators.

“They told me that it was all dark, that the yacht hoisted itself up and then went down,” Genco said, recounting what the survivors told him. “All the objects were falling on them. That’s why I immediately made sure, by asking them questions, if they had any internal injuries,” he said.

It appears they had just minutes to abandon the sinking ship, Genco said.

Divers Retrieve Bodies From Tech Tycoon Mike Lynch Yacht Sunk Off Sicily

“They told me that suddenly they found themselves catapulted into the water without even understanding how they had got there,” he said, “And that the whole thing seems to have lasted from 3 to 5 minutes.”

Giovanni Costantino, CEO of The Italian Sea Group, which owns Perini Navi, the Bayesian's shipbuilder, told Sky News that there were no flaws with the design or construction of the yacht. He said their structure and keel made boats like that “unsinkable bodies.”

In an interview with the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, he disavowed responsibility, blaming instead the actions of the crew. “Mistakes were made,” he said.

Genco said one of his colleagues who arrived at the scene before him initially thought that only three people survived, but the coast guard reported there were other survivors and more emergency services were called in.

When Genco arrived, he found scenes of panic and despair.

“Unfortunately, we are used to such panic scenes because we are used to the shipwrecks that happen on Lampedusa ,” Genco said, referring to the island southwest of Sicily, where the wreckage of boats carrying migrants on the sea journey from North Africa to Italy are often found .

Six of the passengers were declared missing Monday, and by Thursday, the bodies of five had been recovered from the wreck , some 160 feet underwater.

Among those who survived is Angela Bacares, wife of the British tech mogul Mike Lynch , whose body was recovered Thursday.

Divers searching for six missing people following the sinking of a superyacht off Sicily in a storm have found fifth bodies.

Another survivor has been identified as Charlotte Emsley, 35. She told the Italian news agency ANSA that she had momentarily lost hold of her year-old daughter, Sofia, in the water but managed to retrieve her and hold her over the waves until a lifeboat inflated and they were pulled into safety.

Dr. Domenico Cipolla at the Di Cristina Children’s Hospital in Palermo is also part of a team of medical professionals treating the shipwreck survivors. He told the BBC on Wednesday that Emsley and her daughter, as well as the father of the child, who Cipolla said also survived, are continuing to receive psychological help.

“Psychological support was constant and is constant even today, because basically it is the wounds of the soul that are the most in need of healing in these cases,” Cipolla said.

Genco also told NBC News that he was especially concerned about the child. “She did not understand anything. She was soaking wet and cold,” he said.

Karsten Borner, the Dutch captain of the Sir Robert Baden Powell, a yacht that was anchored near the Bayesian, said by phone Wednesday that he saw a thunderstorm come in at around 4 a.m. local time (10 p.m. ET) Monday, followed by what looked like a waterspout, a type of tornado that forms over water.

The International Centre for Waterspout Research noted on X that there was a “waterspout outbreak” off Italy on Monday, the day the Bayesian sank.

All the men missing after a luxury yacht sank off Sicily -- who included UK tech tycoon Mike Lynch -- have been found, a coastguard official told.

“I turned on the engine and made maneuvers so that we wouldn’t collide with the Bayesian, which was anchored about 100 meters from us,” Borner said. “Then all of a sudden it disappeared. Then the wind calmed down, we looked around and saw a red flare.”

Borner said he got into his boat’s tender and saw a life raft with 15 people on it. Members of the crew were administering first aid.

“I don’t know why it sank so quickly, but it may have something to do with the mast which was incredibly long,” he said. Questions have been raised about whether the mast was to blame for the accident as tall masts, even with the sails down, have more surface area exposed to the wind, which can contribute to tipping a vessel in a storm.

The CCTV footage that emerged Tuesday showed the yacht’s 250-foot mast, believed to be one of the tallest aluminum sailing masts in the world, lashed by the storm as it appears to tilt to one side before disappearing.

Claudia Rizzo is an Italy based journalist.

Claudio Lavanga is Rome-based foreign correspondent for NBC News.

Yuliya Talmazan is a reporter for NBC News Digital, based in London.

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MED (92m) // DeBasto Designs

Luiz debasto created the 92m open motor yacht concept med with lateral naval architects, who is responsible for the engineering..

MED is a sophisticated 92-meter yacht with sleek lines that enable efficient cruising, a low gross tonnage, and a groundbreaking approach to life on board.

At the core of this concept lies the open main deck, aptly named Agora, after the public square and central hub of life in Ancient Greece. This yacht pays homage to the Mediterranean way of life and those who embrace a free-spirited mindset. One of the Mediterranean civilization’s most valuable contributions to the modern world is the philosophy of outdoor living and dining, which enhances overall well-being. The MED concept strives to provide unforgettable experiences and limitless adaptability.

De Basto envisioned the main deck as a communal space that embraces the fresh air, creating an inviting environment for individuals to gather, interact with one another, and immerse themselves in the surrounding natural beauty. Although the exact mechanisms behind this phenomenon remain unclear, it has been scientifically proven that exposure to the sea and its salted air benefits human beings.

92m Motor Yacht MED Luiz DeBasto Designs

De Basto’s vision for the Agora is an adaptable and versatile space that can transform according to the time of day and activities taking place. While specific structures serve as visual anchors, most of the area is open to interpretation, allowing for customization for various occasions. This approach ensures that the design remains relevant and adaptable, evolving alongside the yacht.

The Agora concept extends beyond the main deck, with two decks of private spaces below and two public areas above, all with an open layout configuration. The upper decks feature minimal visible openings to contrast with the openness of the main deck while still providing stunning views. The yacht’s tender garages, wing stations, and mooring deck are seamlessly integrated into the design.

The superstructure is constructed entirely of reflective glass, polished to resemble the pebble stone that inspired it, allowing it to reflect its surroundings. The hull’s openings and windows are covered in serigraphy that matches the hull color, making them virtually invisible from the outside.

Irrespective of the ultimate appearance, it is feasible to construct the MED concept. The proficient team at Lateral Naval Architects has meticulously developed the engineering aspect, formulating a structural lattice mechanism that allows the superstructure to possess a minimal footprint and be supported solely by four pillars. This aesthetically pleasing resolution is unprecedented in the realm of yachting.

“I wanted to strip the profile of everything superfluous, leaving just the right number of elements to convey the concept,” Luiz de Basto says. “The flying superstructure volume touches the hull delicately, dissolving the Main Deck into a void space and leaving the Agora Deck open.”

“We designed this project for people who are curious about life, people who are courageous and want to build their own space. For them, we have re-thought what it means to live on board instead of designing another conventional yacht and making it work.”

SHARING IS CARING - THANK YOU!

Vantom // heesen yachts, spear // 140m trimaran // lateral naval architects // t. fotiadis, femke // feadship, otam 85 gts, ithaca // aristotelis betsis, 7-oceans // dlba naval architects, 56m extended explorer // valerio rivellini, aurora // lürssen // 74m.

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Superyacht Training

How To Become A Superyacht Engineer

Thinking about pursuing a career as a superyacht engineer we show you how….

We frequently receive emails from students asking us, “How do I become a Superyacht Engineer?” “Are my trade skills transferable?” “What yacht training must I complete?” and “ What qualifi cations do I need? “. In this article, we break down these questions and explain exactly what steps you need to follow in order to become a super yacht engineer.

What is a Superyacht Engineer?

The crucial part of any yacht engineer job description is maintaining the mechanical and electrical operations of the yacht. The duties of an engineer range from maintaining and servicing generators, jet skis and powerboats to replacing oil filters, repairing water makers, monitoring air conditioning, AV, IT and even unblocking toilets. Whether you are new to the industry, or have worked on land as a plumber, carpenter or tradesman, anyone can become a super yacht engineer, provided they have completed the necessary courses.

The Engineering Department onboard a super yacht is quickly becoming one of the most desirable departments to work due to the rotation packages as well as the transferable skills land-based skills such as plumbing and carpentry . Senior Engineers are highly respected and are of a similar rank to the Captain as the yacht is unable to manoeuvre without them.

What are the Superyacht Engineering Courses and Qualifications?

Yacht engineering qualifications were introduced in February 2001 to provide an industry standard system of certification. The system allows all those who wish to pursue engineering careers to do so, no matter what their previous training is.

The Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA), have set out the basic course progression you will need to follow in order to work your way up from a Junior Engineer, to Chief Engineer onboard. This involves completing the AEC , MEOL and Yacht 4, 3, 2 and 1 qualifications.

The qualifications you require include:

A mechanical, diesel or electrical background

Strong project management skills

Inventory maintenance experience

Understanding of different softwares

The Approved Engine Course (AEC) – the base minimum for superyacht engineers who wish to work on yachts over 24m LOA

The Marine Engine Operators Licence (MEOL)

Depending on the size of yacht you want to work on, you may need the following licenses.

– Yachts <200GT with up to 1500Kw in propulsive power:

Small Vessel Second Engineer (formerly Y4)

– Yachts <500GT with up to 3000Kw in propulsive power:

Small Vessel Chief Engineer (formerly Y3)

– Yachts <3000GT with up to 9000Kw in propulsive power:

Small Vessel Chief Engineer (formerly Y1/2)

or Officer of the Watch (Engineering) – usually gained from the commercial shipping industry

– Unlimited license:

Engineer Officer of the Watch – Unlimited

What is a typical yacht engineer salary?

Starting out as a 3rd or junior engineer, you can expect to earn anywhere from $3,000 to $6,500 per month, and as you move up the ranks to 2nd engineer this increases from $5,000 to $8,000.

In the top position, a chief yacht engineer salary can be anywhere between $8,500 to $13,500, depending on the size of the yacht, so if you want the big bucks then the engineering department is the way forward!

There is no average yacht engineer salary, with roles varying so much from yacht to yacht, however these figures are a guideline for what you can expect to earn. It is worth noting that obtaining your engineering qualifications takes time and is an expensive process, so be sure you are ready to commit to long hours of studying ahead. Check out our article on yachting salaries for more information.

What are the super yacht training package do you offer?

Once you have completed your STCW course and other basic safety training, you can look to expand your skill set to work on board in the super yacht industry.

We have put together an extensive Superyacht Engineering training program which is an ideal entry level introduction for those seeking to work on a yacht as an Engineer. Due to the longevity of the engineering department onboard, this is an excellent avenue to explore if you are looking for real career progression, rather than a gap year experience.

Proficiency in Designated Security Duties (PDSD)
RYA Powerboat Level 2

MCA Approved Engine Course (AEC1)

Interested in learning more?

If you are thinking about starting out as an engineer, you can read more about our Superyacht Engineer Course package.

You can complete these courses with us at Get Onboard Superyacht Academy in Cape Town. If you are interested in learning more, why not speak to one of our expert consultants who will happily answer any additional questions you may have.

Needing more?

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RYA/MCA Online

1. what are the basic requirements you need to be eligible to work in the yachting industry, 2. what is the stcw and why do i need it, 3. what is the eng1 medical certificate, 4. what land based experience will help me find a super yacht job, 5. what are the different departments onboard, 6. what crew training is required for me to work as a junior deckhand.

Yachtmaster/Coastal Skipper Theory
Yachtmaster/Coastal Practical
Specialist Super Yacht Training Course (Deck Hand Training Course)
RYA Power Boat Level II
RYA Personal Watercraft Course
RYA Competent Crew Certificate
RYA Day Skipper Theory and Practical Certificates
VHF Radio Operator’s License

7. What crew training is required for me to work as a junior stewardess?

Stewardess Course
MCA Food Safety Level 2

8. How do I book my training courses?

9. how do i get my first job on a yacht, 10. are these courses worth it, or am i just wasting my money, 11. will i get hired for my first job from south africa, 12. what is daywork, 13. what are the best locations to get a yacht job, 14. how much can a motor yacht stewardess or deckhand earn, 15. what are the negatives of working on a yacht, 16. what are the positives of working on a yacht, 17. is working on a super yacht for everyone, 18. what is the minimum age to work on a yacht, 19. is accommodation provided when i am completing my yacht training in cape town.

Superyacht sinks latest: Investigators reveal where bodies were found as probe looks at 'crew's responsibility'

Italian officials revealed at a news conference there could be "a question of manslaughter" as they opened a shipwreck investigation and said the probe is also looking at the "crew's responsibility".

Saturday 24 August 2024 18:33, UK

Superyacht sinking

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Prosecutor: There 'could be a question of manslaughter'
Probe 'concentrating' on crew's responsibility
Seven bodies recovered after five-day search of superyacht wreckage off Sicily
Saturday's papers pay tribute to youngest victim Hannah Lynch
Hannah's sister pays tribute to 'my little angel'
Explained: Inside the superyacht | What challenges have faced divers?
Eyewitness: Sombre scenes greet rescue teams as final body is brought ashore
Live reporting by Niamh Lynch

We're ending our live coverage for this evening but here is a recap of what we know:

Prosecutors have opened a manslaughter investigation into the Bayesian sinking;
Officials have revealed more details on their investigation and the difficult five-day rescue mission;
The six bodies found during the search in recent days were all in cabins on the left-hand - and highest - side of the ship. Five were found in the first cabin and the sixth was found in the third;
Prosecutors said the six passengers were most likely asleep when the boat sank;
The probe is now focusing on the crew and their responsibilities, with the captain set to undergo more questioning.

Monday 19 August

The Bayesian yacht, flying a British flag, sinks at around 5am local time when the area was hit by a tornado.

Fifteen people are rescued from the 56 metre vessel - including a mother and baby - but another seven remain missing.

One body, later confirmed to be the yacht's chef Recaldo Thomas, is found near the wreck.

It emerges that British technology tycoon Mike Lynch and his 18-year-old daughter Hannah are among six people that remain missing.

Tuesday 20 August

The search continues for the six tourists missing.

It is reported that among those missing are Morgan Stanley International chairman Jonathan Bloomer; his wife, Judy Bloomer; Clifford Chance lawyer Chris Morvillo; and his wife, Neda Morvillo.

Police divers try to reach the hull of the ship, resting at a depth of 50 metres.

Italy's fire brigade Vigili del Fuoco say early inspections of the wreck were "unsuccessful" because of limited access to the bridge and furniture obstructing passages.

The operation is later described as "complex", with divers limited to 12-minute underwater shifts.

Tributes pour in for Mr Thomas, with his friend Gareth Williams saying: "I can talk for everyone that knew him when I say he was a well-loved, kind human being with a calm spirit."

Wednesday 21 August

The search for the six people unaccounted for enters a third day, with crews carrying out inspections of the yacht's internal hull.

A team of four British inspectors from the Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) arrive in Porticello to look at the site of the sinking.

A helicopter is drafted in to help with the search effort and remotely controlled underwater vehicles are being used, with naval units and cave divers also taking part in the search.

Five bodies are found inside the yacht on Wednesday afternoon. Only four of them are brought to shore.

Body bags are seen being taken to Porticello in the afternoon where dozens of emergency services staff wait.

Searches finish for the day just before 7.30pm.

Thursday 22 August

The search resumes for the remaining missing person.

The body of the fifth missing person, found but not recovered the previous day, is brought to shore.

A fire service boat with flashing blue lights returns with a blue body bag to the port of Porticello just after 8.45am local time on Thursday.

Tributes pour in for Mr Lynch and Mr and Mrs Bloomer after they are identified as having died.

The search is called off at around 8pm in Sicily, with divers expected to begin again at 6.30am on Friday.

Friday 23 August

The search continues for the final person missing from the wreck of the Bayesian, Hannah Lynch.

Vincenzo Zagarola, of the Italian Coastguard, says the search for Hannah has not been "easy or quick", comparing the sunken yacht to an "18-storey building full of water".

The coastguard confirms in the late morning that her body has been found.

A green body bag is brought to the port of Porticello from the site of the sinking.

A spokesperson announces on behalf of the Lynch family that they are "devastated" and "in shock" after the deaths of Mike and Hannah.

Hannah's sister Esme pays tribute to her "little angel".

Saturday 24 August

A press conference is held in the court of an Italian town, Termini Imerese.

Public prosecutor Ambrogio Cartosio tells reporters that his office has opened an initial investigation against unknown persons into manslaughter and negligent shipwreck.

As the focus now turns to the manslaughter investigation, here's another reminder of the seven victims of the sinking and the 15 people who survived.

A close friend of the Lynch family has added to the chorus of tributes for British tech tycoon Mike Lynch, who died in Monday's superyacht sinking.

Susannah Gurdun, who lives in Suffolk, recalled being "daunted" when she first met Mr Lynch at a dinner party, before discovering he was "so much more than the corporate cliche".

"He was riveting. He was funny, and kind, and endlessly interesting; capable of talking about anything and everything," she said.

Ms Gardun said the businessman also had a "thrilling ability" to make complicated subjects "accessible to those of us less blessed with a science acumen".

"In particular, he was wonderful with children. I will never forget hearing him explain to a group of them - including our ten year old son - the physics of why the sky went pink at sunset," she said.

She went on describe Mr Lynch as a "true genius" and "phenomenal creative".

Ms Gardun said his daughter Hannah was also showing "serious literary promise", and added that it was "beyond tragic that we will never know where her own particular brilliance might have led".

"I still feel blessed to have shared that time with them in Spain. Not just because I witnessed Mike’s incredible storytelling; but because I was given a chance of understanding what that moment said about all four of them as a united vibrant loving family," she said.

"He was an extraordinary human being and it was - truly - a privilege to have known him."

A yacht crew member who survived the sinking has paid tribute to Hannah Lynch, calling her a "diamond in a sea of stars".

Sasha Murray, chief stewardess of the Bayesian, has released a statement after divers recovered the final missing body from the wreckage, which is believed to be 18-year-old Hannah.

"Those who knew her will know that Hannah was a diamond in a sea of stars," she said.

"Bright, beautiful and always shining. What most people may not have seen was the extraordinarily strong, deep and loving relationship she shared with her parents, whom she adored more than anything.

"While swimming with them she often said, if anything ever happened she would save them.

"I have no doubt that the Irish, Latina fire that burns in her soul kept that spirited determination alive."

Ms Murray's statement comes as a new image of Hannah Lynch and her father Mike Lynch is released:

Prosecutors announced in this morning's news conference that they have opened a manslaughter and negligent shipwreck investigation.

Officials were unable to answer several queries from the media, saying they needed time to establish the facts, but what are the key questions facing prosecutors?

Why weren't passengers who remained on board the vessel warned about escaping from the yacht?

The prosecutor in charge of the case, Raffaele Cammarano, suggested that some passengers may have been asleep when others were awake.

Asked why they were not woken up or alerted, he said that is something investigators are trying to work out from the statements of the survivors.

He called it an "essential" part of the inquiry.

Why were several of the passengers in one cabin?

The press conference heard several bodies onboard the sunken yacht were found in a single cabin which was not theirs.

Mr Cammarano said investigators currently do not know the reason for them being discovered in the same cabin.

The chief of the Palermo fire service, Bentivoglio Fiandra, said the yacht pinned to the right and suggested people tried to go on the other side, taking refuge in cabins in the higher part of the wreck.

Why did the boat sink?

The vessel had been deemed "unsinkable" by its manufacturer - Italian shipyard Perini Navi.

The Bayesian was hit by a downburst, according to Mr Cammarano, which are powerful winds that descend from a thunderstorm and spread out quickly once they hit the ground.

Officials will look into the safety equipment on the sunken vessel.

Mr Cammarano was asked about whether there is a black box and if the hatches were left open.

He said investigators do not have exact information about the black box and that the first phase of the inquiry will look into it.

Why were nearby vessels not similarly affected?

Another yacht, the Sir Robert BP, was about 150 to 200 metres from the Bayesian when extreme weather hit.

Its crew helped to rescue 15 people from the stricken vessel.

Italian officials said they would be looking at how the downburst could affect one vehicle and not other nearby vessels.

What weather warnings was the Bayesian alerted to?

Maritime director of western Sicily, Rear Admiral Raffaele Macauda, said the weather at the time of the yacht's sinking was abnormal and there was nothing to suggest such an extreme situation would arise.

He said there were forecasts of winds and a storm alert, but there was no warning of a tornado.

"Given that the conditions were such, there wasn't anything to suggest there could be an extreme situation arising," he said.

"There are vessels that can monitor, after all, these events and one would have thought that the captain had taken precautions."

How long will it take to recover the sailing vessel?

Mr Macauda could not confirm how long it would take to retrieve the shipwreck of the sunken yacht.

"Everything depends on the availability of the owners and the timeframe of the retrieval of the wreck and of course all that has to be submitted to the port authorities and in parallel of course there will be the inquiry results and it's only really then that we will be able to authorise the operation," he said.

"I can't say, like some experts who have already spoken on the subject, [said] that it will be eight weeks."

He made clear that the owners will bear the full cost of retrieval, although he could not estimate the figure.

Italian authorities detailed the challenging and meticulous rescue operation to recover the six missing people from the Bayesian wreck (see 9.18am post).

But why was the five-day search so difficult?

Bayesian Yacht: A Masterpiece of Luxury and Engineering

Written by: Kevin Lee

Published on: August 20, 2024

The Bayesian yacht, a symbol of nautical elegance and engineering brilliance, has long been celebrated in the world of superyachts. Built by the renowned Italian shipbuilder Perini Navi, this 56-meter vessel was first launched in 2008 under the name Salute. The name itself, translating to “health” in Italian, seemed to promise a voyage of luxury and well-being. However, what truly set this yacht apart was not just its name, but its sheer opulence, advanced design, and the remarkable story it carried.

The Birth of Bayesian: An Engineering Marvel

Originally costing an estimated £14 million, the Bayesian yacht was a testament to the pinnacle of yacht design and craftsmanship. Perini Navi, one of the world’s leading yacht makers, crafted this vessel with a focus on both performance and luxury. Under the expert design of yacht architect Ron Holland, the Bayesian boasted the world’s tallest aluminum mast, standing over 72 meters above the deck. This engineering feat allowed the yacht to carry nearly 3,000 square meters of sail, making it a sight to behold on the open seas.

The yacht’s towering mast was not just for show; it was a technical challenge that required innovative solutions to ensure stability and safety. A former captain of the Bayesian highlighted the achievement of taming this massive structure, ensuring that it behaved dynamically during both sailing and motoring. This balance between design and function made the Bayesian a unique vessel in the world of superyachts.

A Floating Palace: The Luxurious Interiors

The interiors of the Bayesian yacht were designed by the acclaimed Rémi Tessier, a name synonymous with luxury and sophistication. Tessier, who has also designed suites for Claridge’s hotel in London and yachts for Swiss billionaire Ernesto Bertarelli, infused the Bayesian with a sense of pure and natural elegance. Drawing inspiration from Japanese design principles, Tessier utilized whitened sycamore and teak surfaces in the communal areas, creating a serene and calming environment for guests.

In the private cabins, materials such as stainless steel, ebony, and leather were carefully chosen to create a luxurious yet familiar atmosphere. The yacht could comfortably accommodate up to twelve guests in six beautifully appointed cabins, each attended by a staff of ten, dedicated to catering to every whim of the guests. The design emphasized outdoor living, with ample spaces for al fresco entertaining and relaxing on deck.

The Ultimate Playground: Onboard Amenities and Water Toys

For those fortunate enough to embark on a journey aboard the Bayesian, the yacht offered a plethora of amenities designed for both relaxation and adventure. The lower deck was divided into three distinct sections: crew accommodation towards the bow, guest staterooms in the middle, and the owner’s cabin at the aft. This layout ensured that guests enjoyed privacy and comfort throughout their stay.

The real fun, however, was found at the aft of the yacht, where a garage housed a collection of water toys and crafts. From jet skis and wakeboards to sea kayaks and banana boats, the Bayesian was equipped to offer endless entertainment on the water. A tender was also available to transport guests to secluded bays and ports, allowing them to explore the surrounding areas in style.

A Tragic End: The Sinking of the Bayesian

Despite its luxurious beginnings, the story of the Bayesian yacht took a tragic turn. In 2020, the yacht was refitted and no longer listed for private hire. By this time, it had been renamed Bayesian, a name that would become synonymous with one of the most harrowing maritime incidents in recent history.

In August 2024, during a celebratory voyage off the coast of Sicily, the Bayesian was caught in a sudden and severe storm. High winds, reportedly reaching up to 200km/h, battered the yacht, causing the massive aluminum mast to topple over the side. The force of the wind and the weight of the mast pushed the yacht beyond its down-flooding angle, causing seawater to flood the deck. Within minutes, the Bayesian capsized and sank.

A nearby vessel, the Sir Robert BP, witnessed the tragedy unfold. The crew of the Sir Robert BP reported seeing the Bayesian go flat on the water before disappearing beneath the waves. Despite their efforts to help, only 15 people were rescued from the sinking yacht, including a one-year-old baby who was heroically saved by her mother, Charlotte Golunski.

The Aftermath: A Somber Legacy

The sinking of the Bayesian yacht left a profound impact on the yachting community and beyond. Among those feared dead were tech tycoon Mike Lynch and his daughter Hannah, who were aboard the yacht celebrating Lynch’s recent legal victory in the United States. The tragedy underscored the unpredictable and often dangerous nature of the sea, even for vessels as advanced and well-crafted as the Bayesian.

The wreckage of the Bayesian was eventually discovered by divers, but the loss of life and the yacht itself marked a somber end to what was once a symbol of luxury and achievement. The images of the yacht, once proudly displayed in the homes of its owner, now serve as a poignant reminder of the fragility of life and the unpredictability of nature.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of the Bayesian Yacht

The Bayesian yacht, with its towering mast and luxurious interiors, will always be remembered as a masterpiece of nautical engineering and design. It stood as a symbol of opulence, craftsmanship, and the heights that human ingenuity can reach. Yet, its tragic end also serves as a reminder of the forces of nature and the risks inherent in venturing into the open sea.

For those who had the privilege of experiencing the Bayesian, it was more than just a yacht; it was a floating palace, a testament to the art of yacht-making, and a vessel that carried with it the dreams and aspirations of its owners and guests. Though the Bayesian now rests at the bottom of the Mediterranean, its legacy will continue to inspire and remind us of the delicate balance between luxury and nature.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What was the original name of the Bayesian yacht? The Bayesian yacht was originally named Salute when it was launched in 2008 by Perini Navi. The name was later changed to Bayesian.

2. Who designed the Bayesian yacht? The design of the Bayesian yacht was a collaboration between Ron Holland, who designed the yacht’s structure, and Rémi Tessier, who created its luxurious interiors.

3. What made the Bayesian yacht unique? The Bayesian yacht was unique for its 72-meter aluminum mast, the tallest in the world, and its luxurious interiors inspired by Japanese design. It was a perfect blend of engineering excellence and opulent living.

4. What led to the sinking of the Bayesian yacht? The Bayesian yacht sank after being caught in a severe storm off the coast of Sicily. High winds caused the mast to topple, which led to the yacht taking on water, capsizing, and sinking quickly.

5. How many people were rescued from the sinking Bayesian yacht? Fifteen people were rescued from the sinking Bayesian yacht, including a one-year-old baby. However, several others, including the yacht’s owner, Mike Lynch, are feared dead.

About MED52

The MED52 is the flagship unit of the MedYacht Shipyard and the spearhead of the luxury nautical range developed by the brand. Perfect for embarking with family or friends for unforgettable moments at sea, this yacht has been designed to allow all passengers to fully enjoy sailing on board.

Thanks to the « walk around » concept, living space is present everywhere to facilitate circulation on board and offer a pleasant navigation. Equipped with two or three cabins and two bathrooms, the MED52 is a luxury yacht on which pleasure is optimal in all circumstances.

Interior photos

External Photos

MED52, the boat adapted to your needs

Providing excellent seakeeping and high performance offered by the two Volvo IPS engines pour vivre de bonnes sensations, le MED52 has already won over the most demanding yachtsmen around the world.

The MED52 also offers a luxurious level of standard features and equipment, as well as a variety of customisations including the latest innovations and technologies available on the market.

SPECIFICATIONS

Technical aspects.

Customizations

Hull or deck painting

Hard top

Electric sunshade

Choice of interior materials

Fabrics

Woodwork

Made-to-measure fittings

Optional technological equipment

Teck

Television

Refrigerator

Joystick for maneuvers

On-board computer

Equipped kitchen

Outdoor bar

Standard interior customization options

Available engines

IPS 600 D-6 : 2 x 435 HP Volvo

IPS 700 D-8 : 2 x 550 HP Volvo

IPS 800 D-8 : 2 x 600 HP Volvo

IPS 950 D-11 : 2 x 725 HP Volvo

Information & Contact

MedYacht Marines de Cogolin

24 Quai de la Galiote

83310 Les Marines de Cogolin

E-mail : [email protected]

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How to Become A Yacht Engineer

Are you looking for a career as a yacht engineer?

Wilsonhalligan have compiled a breakdown of the qualifications and requirements needed to start out as a yacht engineer. As well as insight into the job day-to-day and how to effectively land your dream position.

What does a Yacht Engineer do?

It depends on the type, size and usage of the yacht. But, the Engineering department are responsible for the operation, maintenance and repair of all:

electricals
electronics
as well as in some cases, structural systems and appendages found on board a modern yacht and superyacht.

Skills needed to be a successful Yacht Engineer:

The role requires a keen eye for planning and organisation. Planned maintenance (carrying out preventative and explorative maintenance before failures occur) is a very important aspect in modern marine engineering. Skills in project management, resource allocation and time management are very desirable, in addition to extensive and diverse technical ability. Many yachts employ software programmers to aid a methodical approach to planned and preventative maintenance, as well as to record failures and repairs as they occur. As well as keeping an accurate inventory of spares held on board. Being able to efficiently use such software programs efficiently would be highly advantageous. Examples of these asset management programs are AMOS and IDEA .

Challenges as an Engineer Onboard a Yacht:

Engineering on a superyacht has particular challenges. Some yachts (particularly charter yachts) can be very busy, meaning a very fast paced and demanding environment. High expectations from owners and guests in regards to service and entertainment also puts a keen onus on engineering departments. They are expected to keep all systems working to minimise or eliminate down time and negative impacts on the itinerary. Of course, when the yacht is at sea, many of these systems are safety critical. Break downs and failures offshore bring a whole new set of challenges and risks.

Which qualifications do I need to get in to Superyacht engineering?

There are really two main entry routes in to yacht and superyacht engineering. They follow two distinct certification pathways – entering from commercial shipping, or working through yacht-based certification routes.

Firstly, the Commercial Shipping Route of Training for Yacht Engineering:

The Commercial Shipping route most commonly begins with a sponsored cadetship with a shipping company. Who, are working in partnership with maritime training providers. Candidates must apply to one of a number of cadetship schemes. And, if accepted will undertake usually 3 years of study and work experience on the sponsoring companies’ vessels. Culminating very often in the Officer of the Watch (Engineering) or ‘EOOW’ ticket. And, usually either an HND or BSc Degree in Marine Engineering or similar.

Once the EOOW certificate is in hand, candidates can be considered suitably qualified. As well as experienced for junior engineering officer roles on large yachts. A common first yachting job for EOOW qualified candidates is 3 rd Engineer. The main advantage of a cadetship is that seatime is gained quickly and on vessels over 3000 GT. It also allows for a ticket which is ‘unlimited’ by tonnage as all yacht engineering certificates are. This opens the door to working on the world’s largest mega and superyachts.

Also, the sponsoring company pays for all courses and examinations which would be extremely expensive if self-sponsored. And, very often a small training bursary is paid on top (some as much as €11,000 / year). The biggest disadvantage is that candidates will have to commit to different types of vessels during the cadetship. These are likely to be chemical tankers or containerships. But most of the large luxury cruise ship companies also offer cadetships. Which, is in some ways closer to the yachting industry. One facilitator of maritime cadetships is the Warsash Maritime Academy – see here .

Secondly, the Yacht Certification Route of Training for Engineering:

This route is made up of 6 key certificates:

The Approved Engine Course (AEC). Often seen as the base-minimum for superyacht engineers who wish to work on yachts over 24m LOA. Usually a 4-day course covering the theory of compression-ignition (diesel) engines and includes a large amount of practical workshops. View the full syllabus for the Approved Engine Course (AEC) . One common provider of AEC courses is Bluewater Yachting in Antibes – see here .

The Marine Engine Operators Licence (MEOL). This is the first certificate in the yacht route that requires sea service, specific shore based learning and an oral exam. View further details on MSN 1859 here .

Y4 Engineer. The first of what is commonly referred to as the ‘Y Tickets’. Y4 allows engineers to work as Chief Engineer on yachts between 200 and 500GT. And, up to 1500Kw in propulsive power.

Y3 Engineer. Allows engineers to work as Chief Engineer on yachts up to 3000GT and up to 3000KW in propulsive power.

Y2 Engineer. Allows engineers to work as Chief Engineer on yachts up to 3000GT and up to 6000KW in propulsive power.

Y1 Engineer. Allows engineers to work as Chief Engineer on yachts up to 3000GT and up to 9000KW in propulsive power.

The Maritime and Coastguard Agency have simplified the Y ticket structure however, and page 19 of MIN 524 provides a simple conversion table from Y tickets to the new standard – Small Vessel (or SV) tickets.

Some course providers are now offering yachting cadetships – one example is this one provided by the UKSA in Cowes on the Isle of Wight .

How To Find a Job as a Superyacht Engineer

Once you have the relevant qualifications, then comes the time to start looking for your first position. Of course, word of mouth and personal connections made through training are a fantastic way to gain knowledge on current positions available however, also consider the following:

Dockwalking – travel to one of the main Superyacht hubs like Palma, Antibes or La Ciotat and walk the docks asking yachts if they need engineering crew. You should take a proper CV , references , and make sure you are well – presented. Be polite and prepare yourself for some face-to-face rejection . However, don ‘ t take things personally .

Use a reputable crew agent such as wilsonhalligan who are MLC 2006 compliant, vastly experienced and a well respected crew recruitment agency in the industry who does the dock walking for you!

We hope you find this helpful! And, we wish you luck on all your career endeavours.

Check out the latest yacht crew jobs available with wilsonhalligan. also, like their facebook page where they post featured yacht engineer jobs as well as the latest jobs available..

For the latest Superyacht Content career and training news, click here.

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Related articles, 5 crew-specific courses you can take anytime, anywhere with maritime training academy, life after yachting: carmen preda. crew life & capseayachting, how a superyacht career prepared myrotat founder for entrepreneurship, how to become a yacht engineer. here are the qualifications & requirements you need.

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Historic Review

Recent advancement in thin-film and mixed ehl (mid-1990s to present), interfacial mechanics, acknowledgment, nomenclature, elastohydrodynamic lubrication: a gateway to interfacial mechanics—review and prospect.

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Zhu, D., and Jane Wang, Q. (August 9, 2011). "Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication: A Gateway to Interfacial Mechanics—Review and Prospect." ASME. J. Tribol . October 2011; 133(4): 041001. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4004457

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Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL) is commonly known as a mode of fluid-film lubrication in which the mechanism of hydrodynamic film formation is enhanced by surface elastic deformation and lubricant viscosity increase due to high pressure. It has been an active and challenging field of research since the 1950s. Significant breakthroughs achieved in the last 10–15 years are largely in the area of mixed EHL, in which surface asperity contact and hydrodynamic lubricant film coexist. Mixed EHL is of the utmost importance not only because most power-transmitting components operate in this regime, but also due to its theoretical universality that dry contact and full-film lubrication are in fact its special cases under extreme conditions. In principle, mixed EHL has included the basic physical elements for modeling contact, or hydrodynamic lubrication, or both together. The unified mixed lubrication models that have recently been developed are now capable of simulating the entire transition of interfacial status from full-film and mixed lubrication down to dry contact with an integrated mathematic formulation and numerical approach. This has indeed bridged the two branches of engineering science, contact mechanics, and hydrodynamic lubrication theory, which have been traditionally separate since the 1880s mainly due to the lack of powerful analytical and numerical tools. The recent advancement in mixed EHL begins to bring contact and lubrication together, and thus an evolving concept of “Interfacial Mechanics” can be proposed in order to describe interfacial phenomena more precisely and collaborate with research in other related fields, such as interfacial physics and chemistry, more closely. This review paper briefly presents snapshots of the history of EHL research, and also expresses the authors’ opinions about its further development as a gateway to interfacial mechanics.

Background and Early Studies (1880s–1940s).

Power and motion are transmitted through interfaces at surface contact locations in mechanical components. Contact geometry can be generally categorized as conformal contact and counterformal contact. In a conformal contact, the two surfaces have closely matched curvatures with each other so that the area of surface interaction is large, typically comparable to dimensions of the machine elements. Typical conformal-contact components include journal bearings, piston/ring/cylinder systems, many types of joints and seals, and others. A counterformal contact; on the contrary, is formed by two surfaces whose curvatures do not match. As a result, the contact area is usually small in both principal directions (called point contact), or at least in one direction (line contact), and a localized high-pressure concentration may exist at the interface. Counterformal contact can be found in various gears, rolling element bearings, cam/follower systems, vane pumps, ball screws, metal-rolling tools, traction drives, continuously variable transmissions, and so on.

Starting in the 1930s, researchers strived to improve the lubrication analyses for counterformal contacts by including the effect of localized elastic deformation of the two surfaces (Peppler, 1936 [( 4 )], Meldahl, 1941 [( 5 )], etc.) and that of the lubricant viscosity increase in the contact area due to high pressure (Gatcombe, 1945 [( 6 )], Blok, 1950 [( 7 )], etc.). Both elastic deformation and viscosity increase appeared to have positive influences on lubricant film formation. However, a significant breakthrough in understanding the fundamental elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) mechanism was not seen by the research community until 1949, when Grubin [( 8 )] published his paper, “Fundamentals of the Hydrodynamic Theory of Lubrication of Heavily Loaded Cylindrical Surfaces.” It is said that Grubin’s theory was based on Ertel’s preliminary results obtained as early as 1939 [( 9 )].

The shape of the elastically deformed cylindrical bodies in a heavily loaded lubricated contact is the same as that in the corresponding dry contact.

The hydrodynamic pressure approaches infinity at the inlet border of the Hertzian contact zone.

Establishment of Fundamental EHL Theories (1950–1970s).

Numerical solutions without the two assumptions previously mentioned for line-contact problems were given much attention in the 1950s and 1960s. The first successful solution was published in 1951 by Petrusevich [( 10 )], who presented three cases in detail for different speeds but the same load, as shown in Fig. 1 . Impressively, his results demonstrated all the typical EHL characteristics for the first time, including a nearly constant central film thickness and an EHL pressure distribution close to the Hertzian over the majority of the contact zone, a film constriction downstream near the outlet, and, especially, a high-pressure spike at the outlet side right before the film constriction, which was later named the “Petrusevich Spike.” Also, the three film thickness values he presented were close to those predicted by currently used formulas developed much later. Based on his limited results, he somehow derived a film thickness formula, which quite correctly reflected the relationship between film thickness and speed, but showed a small film thickness increase with increasing load, that appeared to be difficult for people to understand at that time.

Line-contact EHL solutions by Petrusevich [( 10 )]

Parallel to the above-mentioned theoretical studies, experimental investigations also yielded fruitful results. Early studies were focused mainly on line-contact EHL film thickness measurements using disc/roller machines with the capacitance technique (e.g., 1961–1963 by Crook [( 15 , 16 )] and in 1966 by Dyson et al. [( 17 )]) and the X-transmission method (in 1961 by Sibley and Orcutt [( 18 )]). The basic trends in EHL were confirmed experimentally, e.g., the film thickness is significantly affected by the rolling speed, but the load effect is nearly negligible. Measured film thickness results were found to be in reasonably good agreement with those predicted by formulas 3 – 5 . In addition, EHL pressure distribution was measured with thin-film transducers applied onto disc specimens by Kannel, 1966 [( 19 )], Hamilton and Moore, 1971 [( 20 )], etc. The Petrusevich spike was observed experimentally.

In 1961, Archard and Kirk [( 21 )] were probably the first who experimentally demonstrated a measurable lubricant film in a heavily loaded point contact, formed by two crossed cylinders, although the film thickness appeared to be smaller than that in a line contact under otherwise similar conditions. Note that the capacitance technique was used to measure the average or central film thickness, while the X-ray technique could give approximate results of the minimum film thickness. No detailed information about the shape of the EHL film or the gap between the two surfaces could be provided until optical interferometry, which was originally developed in 1963 and 1966 by Gohar and Cameron [( 22 , 23 )], and further modified in 1969-1970 by Foord et al. [( 24 )]. With a superfinished steel ball against a glass disc, one could observe the lubricant film thickness distribution through optical interference fringes under a microscope. Figure 2 shows a sample of such measurements. A remarkable new finding was that in such circular contact the film constriction takes a horseshoe shape and the minimum film thickness is actually located on two sides away from the centerline. Due to its great accuracy and capability to provide detailed mapping of film thickness, the optical interferometry has been a major experimental means in fundamental EHL research since then. Its limitations include the requirement of the use of superfinished transparent optical disks and highly reflective balls.

Optical interference fringes by Gohar and Cameron [( 23 )], in an EHL circular contact

Simplified inlet analyses of Grubin’s type for point-contact problems were developed in 1966 by Archard and Cowking [( 25 )], in 1970 by Cheng [( 26 )], about 15–20 years later than that by Grubin for line contacts. Full numerical solutions for point contacts did not appear until 1975–1976, more than 10 years behind the successful experimental studies and 20–25 years later than the full solutions of line-contact EHL. This is because additional computing capacity needed by point-contact problems demanded significantly more powerful digital computers, which were not widely available to engineering researchers earlier. In 1975, Ranger et al. [( 27 )] presented the first full solution from a straightforward iterative procedure, numerically demonstrating the typical point-contact EHL characteristics and confirming experimental observations from optical interferometry for the first time. It was questionable; however, that their results showed an increasing film thickness with increasing load, beyond the common understanding at that time. It should be noticed today that Petrusevich and Ranger et al. were the first to present the full numerical solutions in line and point contacts, respectively, but their work did not seem to get full recognition for the same reason: Both studies showed slight film thickness increase with increasing load in the parameter ranges they analyzed. Today, it is understood that the film thickness may gradually increase first and then slightly decrease, if the load is continuously increasing over an extended wide range.

Significant Development on Various Subjects.

The development of EHL theory and practice has been prosperous and many significant contributions have been presented since the 1960s. A brief review like this one can only give a snapshot, citing a small portion of published papers and focusing on a limited number of topics. Readers may refer to the 1999 work of Dowson and Ehret [( 34 )], the 2001 work of Gohar [( 35 )], the 2006 work of Spikes [( 36 )], and other works for more historic reviews.

Starvation Effect.

Insufficient lubricant supply for various reasons may cause a condition called “starvation,” which may significantly affect EHL film formation. Early studies started with optical interferometry experiments, because the lubricant supply could be readily quantified under microscope with the distance from the meniscus inlet boundary of an EHL film to the center of contact (called the inlet distance). Pioneer studies include the 1971 work of Wedeven et al. [( 37 )] and the 1974 work of Chiu [( 38 )], who defined the starvation problem well, and used the meniscus inlet boundary position as a criterion of starvation severity. Early analytical investigations were conducted in 1971 by Wolveridge et al. [( 39 )] for line contacts and in 1977 by Hamrock and Dowson [( 31 )] for elliptical contacts, and others, using the inlet distance as an input parameter in predicting the film thickness. Various film thickness reduction formulas have been obtained through curve fitting based on either experimental or numerical results. It was found that the basic trends from those formulas are in good agreement, but quantitative differences still exist. One of the reasons for the differences is probably that in numerical simulations a straight line inlet boundary was assumed, while in the experiments the practical situation was much more complicated. More recently, attempts were made in order to consider realistic conditions, e.g., the analytical study in 1998 by Chevalier et al. [( 40 )], and other studies.

Thermal EHL.

Transient flash temperature measurement in a tiny EHL contact is a challenging task. There have mainly been two techniques: (1) measurement with thin-film transducers deposited onto specimens in a rolling–sliding contact (e.g., by Orcutt [( 48 )] in 1965 and Kannel and Bell [( 49 )] in 1972, among others); (2) detection of infrared radiation on a device similar to that of the optical interferometry (Turchina et al. [( 50 )] in 1974, and others).

Friction/Traction in EHL.

EHL friction, sometimes called traction, is of great importance as it is directly associated with machine components’ performance, efficiency, and energy consumption. For hydrodynamic lubrication, in which pressure is relatively low and lubricant film is thick so that lubricant shear strain rate in the film is low, commonly used industrial lubricants may be considered as Newtonian fluids and modeling friction is relatively simple. For the EHL, however, the frictional mechanism becomes much more complicated. Early experimental studies (e.g. Crook [( 16 )], some sample results are shown in Fig. 3 ) revealed that measured friction is usually much lower than predicted by Newtonian fluid models. A new concept of limiting shear stress was then established in further studies by Plint [( 51 )] and Johnson and Cameron [( 52 )], both in 1967–1968, and others. Basically, in the inlet zone of an EHL contact, where the entraining action actually dominates the lubricant film formation, the pressure is relatively low and the gap is large, so that the shear strain rate is still low and the Newtonian models may still be acceptable. That is why the Newtonian models can be successfully used to solve for EHL film thickness. However, a vast majority of sliding friction is generated in the contact zone, where the pressure may reach 1–4 GPa, the lubricant passes through probably in a small fraction of a minisecond, and the film thickness (or gap) tiny, resulting in a lubricant shear rate possibly as high as 10 8 1/s. Under such conditions the lubricant can no longer be considered as Newtonian; the shear stress may increase but cannot go beyond the limit. The limiting shear stress, τ L , is found to be a property of lubricant, which is also a function of pressure and temperature.

EHL friction measured by Crook [( 16 )] as a function of load and sliding speed. Load (10 7 dyn/cm): ( a ) 20, ( b ) 15, ( c ) 7.5. T s : measured traction/friction.

More efforts on modeling EHL friction are still ongoing. Fortunately, in engineering practice friction is often relatively easy to evaluate experimentally. Based on friction test data, one can estimate the limiting shear stress of a lubricant under given conditions of contact pressure and temperature.

More Rheology-Related Issues.

Defining lubricant rheology under the EHL conditions is a challenging task, because it is difficult, if not impossible, to reproduce such transient high-pressure high-shear strain rate conditions in a laboratory outside the tiny EHL contact zone. Viscosity at the inlet may noticeably affect the EHL film thickness analysis, while lubricant shear characteristics determine the traction and thermal behaviors of an EHL interface. Although transient lubricant properties under high pressure, high shear rate, and varying temperature, as those a fluid may experience in EHL, are difficult to obtain, certain empirical relationships to correlate viscosity with pressure and temperature, as well as to describe other physical phenomena such as “shear thinning,” have assisted the advancement of EHL modeling. A thorough review of rheology research is beyond the scope of this paper. Readers may find in-depth coverage of rheology for EHL from the 2007 work of Bair [( 56 )] and in general the 1985 work of Tanner [( 57 )]. Here, only several commonly used viscosity equations are listed.

In 1893, Barus [( 58 )] reported the viscosity data of a marine glue as a function of the average pressure in a linear model. However, the exponential relationship, Eq. 2 , more well known in tribology as the Barus equation, is widely used in EHL analyses due to its simplicity and capture of a certain nonlinear pressure–viscosity behavior. Exponential pressure–viscosity relationships were observed on several mineral oils in 1937 by Thomas et al. [( 59 )], although the data were given in kinetic viscosity and the density effect was not discussed. Log-scale linear relationships were found in a 1953 ASME report [( 60 )]. According to Cameron [( 61 )] in 1966, and others, the “Barus” exponential relationship describes the viscosity behavior quite well up to the pressure range of 200–400 MPa at low temperatures. In 1976, Hirst and Moore [( 62 )] pointed out that the measured viscosity peaks were much lower than those predicted by Eq. 2 .

Roughness Effect.

In engineering practice, no surface is ideally smooth, and roughness is usually of the same order of magnitude as, or greater than, the film thickness estimated by the smooth surface EHL theory. Effects of surface roughness and topography, therefore, ought to be taken into account in EHL analyses for engineering applications. Great efforts have been made since 1970s, and there have been basically two types of rough surface EHL models: stochastic and deterministic. Early studies employed mainly stochastic models, using a small number of selected statistic parameters to describe the surface and lubrication characteristics. Among various models, the 1978 model by Patir and Cheng [( 67 )] for line-contact problems has enjoyed wide recognition. It employed an average Reynolds equation derived by Patir and Cheng [( 68 )] in 1978 for hydrodynamics and a load–compliance relation given in 1971 by Greenwood and Tripp [( 69 )], based on a simplified stochastic contact model. Obtained solutions showed that transverse roughness, with asperity aspect ratio γ < 1.0, may lead to a significant increase in film thickness, while longitudinal roughness, γ > 1.0, may cause a film reduction, as shown in Fig. 4 . This influence is rather negligible when the hydrodynamic parameter, Λ = h cs /σ , is large. It becomes more and more significant if Λ continuously decreases. In 1988, this stochastic approach was extended to point contacts by Zhu and Cheng [( 71 )].

Roughness orientation effect predicted by stochastic models (from Zhu et al. [( 70 )])

The stochastic models; however, could only predict basic trends and estimate approximate average values. Parameter variations within the EHL conjunction and localized details, such as maximum and minimum values (which may be critical for studies on lubrication breakdown and failures), were missed. During the last 20 years more attention has been given to deterministic approaches due to advancements in computer technologies and numerical simulation methods. Early deterministic models mainly employed artificial roughness, such as sinusoidal waves and irregularities of simple geometry, e.g., the 1984 model of Goglia et al. [( 72 )], the 1987 model of Lubrecht [( 73 )], the 1989 model of Kweh et al. [( 74 )], the 1975 model of Chang et al. [( 75 )], and others. More realistic two-dimensional machined or random roughness was used in 1976 by Venner [( 76 )], in 1992 by Kweh, et al. [( 77 )], and by others. Full-scale point-contact EHL solutions utilizing digitized three-dimensional machined roughness did not appear until Xu and Sadeghi [( 78 )] in 1996 and Zhu and Ai [( 79 )] in 1997, etc.

It should be noted that line-contact problems were traditionally solved with simplified two-dimensional models when surfaces were assumed smooth or analyzed stochastically. In reality; however, rough surface topography is usually three dimensional, so that a 3D line-contact deterministic model is needed in order to take into account the roughness effect. In 2009, the first 3D line-contact model was developed by Ren et al. [( 80 )], employing an FFT approach with mixed padding that employs periodic extension in the direction perpendicular to motion and zero padding in the other.

Generally, the effects of surface roughness and orientation on the EHL film thickness predicted by the deterministic models are not as great as those predicted by the stochastic models. For line contacts, the basic trends presented by Ren et al. [( 80 )] are similar to those by Patir and Cheng [( 67 )], but quantitatively the influences appear to be relatively mild. For point contacts, the effects of roughness orientation become more complicated. For example, in a circular contact, the transverse roughness may possibly yield a thinner film than the longitudinal due to significant lateral flows that can be enhanced by the transverse roughness but may have a negative influence on the EHL film formation. So far there seems to be no systematic study found in literature on this topic over a wide range of operating conditions considering various types of contact geometry and roughness orientation.

The importance of surface roughness effect on the lubrication performance and components’ life was recognized as early as in the 1960s (Dawson [( 81 )] in 1962) and early 1970s (Tallian [( 82 )] in 1972), and later by many others. A parameter called the film thickness ratio, or λ ratio, or specific film thickness, defined as the ratio of average film thickness over composite rms roughness, λ = h a /σ , was introduced for evaluation of lubrication effectiveness in a rough surface EHL contact. More discussions will be given in the following for mixed EHL.

Improvements of Film-Thickness Measurement.

Spacer Layer Imaging Method (SLIM), developed at Imperial College, London (Johnston et al. [( 83 )] in 1991, Cann et al. [( 84 )] in 1996, and others). In order to overcome the above-stated resolution limitation, a combination of a solid spacer layer, having the same reflective index as that of the oil to be measured, with a spectrum analysis technique enables accurate measurement of very thin lubricant films on the nanometer scale.

Relative Optical Interference Intensity Technique, developed at Tsinghua University, China, by Luo et al. [( 85 )] in 1996, and others. A monochrome light is used to produce interference fringes and the lubricant film thickness at a certain location is determined by the relative light intensity between the maximum and minimum within the same order of fringe. The intensity is precisely measured through a digitized image analysis, and the resultant film thickness resolution is claimed to be about 0.5 nm.

Thin-Film Colorimetric Interferometry, developed at Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic (Hartl et al. [( 86 )] in 1999). This method incorporates a computer-controlled test apparatus with an extensive imaging process software, so that real-time instantaneous evaluation of film thickness distribution can be successfully conducted through colorimetric interferometry and the measurement range is about 1–800 nm.

Based on the much improved resolution and accuracy, ultrathin films with a patterned/textured surface can be measured and detailed mapping obtained (see Fig. 5 for an example with the SLIM). This capability provides useful tools for studying the transition from thick-film and thin-film EHL down to mixed and boundary lubrication. Detailed descriptions and comparison of these techniques is beyond the scope of this brief review.

Improved thin-film measurement with SLIM (sample results shown on the left are from Guantang et al. [( 87 )])

Improvements of Numerical Solution Methods

Ehl equations..

EHL research has relied heavily on numerical analyses through model-based simulations. The development of the EHL theory and practice; therefore, has been dependent largely upon advancements of computer technologies and numerical solution methods. A typical set of basic equations that formulate rough surface point-contact EHL problems in general is given in the following (equations for relatively simpler problems, such as those of line contacts and/or smooth surfaces, will not be described here).

A pressure–viscosity relationship should be included in the model system. The exponential equation, η = η 0 e α p ⁠ , the Roelands equation, and the free-volume model, etc., can be selected. However, the range of model application deserves attention.

The pressure–density relationship can come from a state equation. The Dowson–Higginsen pressure–density model (see Ref. [ 13 ]) and Tait’s type of the equation of state (see Ref. [ 65 ]) are among the commonly used ones with particularly determined parameters.

Numerical Solution Methods.

The above-presented equation system exhibits very strong nonlinear behaviors, resulting mainly from the surface elastic deformation and much increased viscosity due to pressure. Therefore, the numerical solution has long been a great challenge to researchers. With a traditional direct iteration approach, the elastic deformation, V(x, y ), can be calculated based on an initial guess of pressure distribution, p(x, y ), and then the film thickness, h(x, y ), can be readily obtained. Substituting h(x, y ) into the discretized Reynolds equation one can solve for all the unknown nodal pressures on the left side of the equation, as everything on the right side is considered as known. Using the newly obtained pressure distribution one can update the deformation and the film thickness and then solve for the pressure again in the next iteration. This procedure can be repeated until a converged solution is achieved that satisfies both the pressure convergence and load balance criteria prescribed.

Inverse Solution. It used the direct iteration only in the low pressure inlet zone and solved for the pressure inversely in the high-pressure contact zone, being able to successfully handle heavy loading cases and obtain solutions within a small number of calculation cycles. Following Dowson and Higginson’s first inverse solution in line contacts [( 11 )], Evans and Snidle [( 88 )] and Hou et al. [( 89 )], in 1981 and 1987, respectively, developed similar approaches for point-contact problems. However, the inverse solution procedure requires tricky manual adjustment and domain division from case to case, so it is not fully automatic.

System Analysis through Newton–Raphson Iterative Procedure. The Newton–Raphson method was initially employed in 1975 by Rohde and Oh [( 90 )] for line-contact problems and in 1977 by Oh and Rohde [( 91 )] for point contacts with rather coarse computational meshes. The number of iterative cycles appeared to be reduced and convergence speed increased, compared with the early direct iterative methods, but the published solutions were still limited to low Hertzian contact pressures, about 0.15–0.35 GPa. Houpert and Hamrock [( 92 )] in 1986, and others, improved the numerical method for line contacts based on Okamura’s system analysis presented earlier in 1982 [( 93 )]. They adopted a nonuniform computational mesh with much increased mesh density around the inlet border of contact zone and also in the vicinity of the pressure spike. Their obtained solutions reached a maximum Hertzian pressure as high as 4.8 GPa. Also, the detailed shape of the secondary pressure spike was revealed to be smooth with a certain height, rather than a sharp singular peak, if a sufficient number of grid nodes were used around the spike. With this system analysis method, all the unknown nodal pressures and the central film thickness are updated simultaneously based on the entire integrated equation system, and a converged solution can be obtained within a small number of iterations. However, it requires a good initial guess of the pressure distribution and, especially, calculation and storage of several large full matrices, which are mainly due to the Jacobian matrix of gradients and its inversion. For point-contact problems with an adequate mesh density, this would demand huge computing time and memory space. Therefore this approach has not been extended to point-contact EHL.

Coupled Differential Deflection Method. This approach was developed in 2000 by Hughes et al. [( 94 )] for line-contact problems and modified in 2003 by Holmes et al. [( 95 )] for point contacts. A differential form of the deformation equation was derived, with which the effect of pressure appears to be much localized compared to that with the original integral form of deformation equation. As a result, the matrix of pressure-deformation coefficients can be simplified into a bandwidth matrix which enables an elimination solver to be used for line contacts and a coupled iterative technique for point contacts. Based on this, the elastic and hydrodynamic equations can be effectively coupled and solved simultaneously. In this way, the computation is accelerated and the solution better stabilized under heavy loading conditions.

Multigrid Method. This method was originally developed in the areas of computational fluid mechanics, then employed in solving EHL problems; first, in 1987, by Lubrecht [( 73 )] (a sample numerical solution is shown in Fig. 6 ), followed by Venner [( 76 )] in 1991, Ai [( 96 )] in 1993, and many others. It is found that errors whose wavelength is of the order of the mesh size are fast to converge and hence can be reduced quickly, implying that higher frequency errors can be reduced quickly on a finer mesh while lower frequency errors can be removed efficiently on a coarser mesh. Thus in a multigrid process the computational mesh is constantly changed with mesh density increasing and decreasing alternately. Through the repeated transitions between coarse and fine meshes, the total error is minimized quickly. By using this method, together with a much reduced dimensionless ultimate mesh size Δx/a from the previous level of about 0.06–0.20 down to 0.0075–0.03, the solution process appears to be significantly accelerated and numerical accuracy improved in both line and point-contact solutions. Therefore, this method has enjoyed wide applications.

Semisystem Approach. As stated earlier, if in each iteration the coefficient matrix of the discretized Reynolds equation is constructed only from the pressure flow terms on the left, and all the other terms on the right are considered as known and calculated by using the available pressure from the initial guess or previous iteration, the solution process may suffer from very slow convergence and numerical instability, especially under heavy loading and/or low speed conditions. The basic idea of the semisystem approach is to consider the entraining flow term as a function of unknown nodal pressures, so that the construction of the coefficient matrix will utilize not only the pressure flow terms but the entraining flow term as well. In this way, the diagonal dominance is guaranteed even when the pressure flow becomes extremely weak. This approach was employed in 1993 by Ai [( 96 )], in 1999 by Zhu and Hu [( 97 )], in 2000 by Hu and Zhu [( 98 )], and by others. It has been proven that with this approach the solution convergence and stability can be ensured even under extremely severe conditions, and cases with ultrathin film, zero-film, and rough surface asperity contacts can be handled.

Progressive Mesh Densification (PMD) Method. Morales-Espejel et al. [( 99 )] in 2005, Liu et al. [( 100 )] in 2006, and others pointed out that as calculated EHL film thickness is getting smaller, down to nanometer scale or approaching zero, the converged solution becomes dependent more significantly on the mesh density and differential schemes used. In 2007, Zhu [( 101 )] further revealed that the converged film thickness is approaching a limit if mesh density continuously increases, and this asymptotic limit can be readily estimated. Based on this, a (PMD) method has been developed (see Ref. [ 101 ] for details). It appears to be capable of speeding up the solution process remarkably while ensuring numerical accuracy, beneficial especially to ultrathin film and mixed EHL.

Multigrid solution of an EHL circular contact using a densified mesh by Lubrecht [( 73 )]

Deformation Calculation Techniques.

Direct summation using influence coefficients, employed earlier by Hamrock and Dowson [( 28 )] (influence coefficient calculation was based on zero-order discretization of the pressure distribution), Ranger et al. [( 27 )] (bilinear discretization), and Zhu and Wen [( 43 )] (biquadratic discretization), and others.

Multilevel multi-integration by Lubrecht and Ioannides [( 102 )] in 1991, etc.

Differential deflection method by Evans and Hughes [( 103 )] in 2000.

Discrete convolution and FFT, originally developed by Liu et al. [( 104 )] in 2000 and Liu and Q. Wang [( 105 )] in 2002. It has been employed in the EHL by Wang et al. [( 106 )] in 2003, and others.

As described earlier, the development of the EHL theory and application in early years was either based on smooth surfaces or artificial roughness of simple geometry under full-film conditions with no surface contact, or through stochastic models that did not directly simulate surface contact and could not handle severe conditions with heavy interaction of rough surface asperities (i.e., λ ratio below 0.5). In engineering practice; however, no surface is ideally smooth, and surface roughness is often of the same order of magnitude as, or greater than, the average lubricant film thickness, so that a complete separation between the two surfaces is seldom. Mixed EHL (also called partial EHL) is the mode in which both EHL films and surface asperity contacts coexist and neither can be ignored. Actually, most functional components operate in the mixed lubrication regime, often at λ ratios far below 0.5. Also, in-depth lubrication transition studies and failure analyses require detailed information about distributions and maximum/minimum values of pressure, film thickness, friction, flash temperature, and subsurface stresses resulted from mixed EHL with real machined roughness, which cannot be provided by stochastic models. Powerful deterministic models and experimental methods for mixed EHL studies are certainly in high demand.

The great advancement of computer and information technologies has fueled significant breakthroughs in the thin-film and mixed EHL research and development since mid-1990s. First, improved optical interferometry, described previously, has yielded fruitful results in the areas of ultrathin film and boundary lubrication as well as mixed EHL with textured surfaces. Representative contributions include those by Guangteng and Spikes [( 107 , 108 )] in 1995 and 1997; Luo et al. [( 85 )] in 1996; Kaneta and Nishikawa [( 109 )] in 1999; Guangteng et al. [( 87 )] in 2000; Luo and Liu [( 110 )] in 2006; Krupka and Hartl [( 111 112 )] in 2007, and others. The thin EHL film measurements can now be done at the nanometer scale, and the transition from full-film EHL to boundary lubrication has been a focus of investigation. In addition, various types of textured surfaces have been used in the experiments showing asperity contact patterns in mixed EHL that can be used for numerical simulation model validation.

Concurrently, deterministic solutions for mixed EHL have achieved significant progress. Basically there have been two approaches for mixed lubrication simulation: the first is to use a unified equation system and solution method for both the lubricated areas and asperity contacts simultaneously, and the second to use separate models for lubrication and contact, respectively. A separate solution with sinusoidal roughness for line contacts was presented in 1995 by Chang [( 113 )]. In 1999, Jiang et al. [( 114 )] presented the first model with the separate approach for point-contact mixed EHL with machined roughness. Also in 1999, the first unified approach for point contacts with machined 3D roughness was published by Zhu and Hu [( 97 )], and then in 2000 by Hu and Zhu [( 98 )]. Other unified solutions were obtained by Holmes et al. [( 115 )] in 2005, through a coupled differential deflection method, and in 2009 by Li and Kahraman [( 116 )] by means of an asymmetric integrated control volume discretization. The separate approach was also employed in 2001 by Zhao et al. [( 117 )], in 2002 by Holmes et al. [( 118 )], in 2003 by Zhao and Sadeghi [( 119 )], in 2004 by Popovici, et al. [( 120 )], and others, mainly for start-up and slow-down problems, in which the lubricated and contact areas are clearly separated and the boundary conditions in between can be conveniently handled.

Considering that dry contact is nothing but a special case of lubricated contact under extreme conditions (such as ultralow viscosity, ultralow speed, and/or high pressure concentrated in tiny contact areas), theoretically, there should be no barrier between contact and lubrication, and one should be able to use a unified lubrication equation system to simulate both EHL films and asperity contact simultaneously, if the numerical solver is sufficiently robust. It is important to note that “dry contact” is defined as the state in which there is no effective hydrodynamic fluid film between the two surfaces. Basically, the term of “contact” is still based on the continuum mechanics. It may not be suitable for describing any molecular or atomic level events. Therefore, the effect of possible absorbed lubricant molecules on the surfaces is not considered in contact and mixed lubrication simulations. Newly developed numerical approaches appear to be capable of simulating the entire transition from full-film and mixed EHL down to dry contact under severe operating conditions (see Fig. 7 for an example). This not only bridges contact and lubrication successfully with a unified model, but also provides a powerful tool for analyzing engineering interfaces under practical conditions. Based on the mixed EHL model by Zhu and Hu, a virtual texturing approach was developed in 2005 by Wang and Zhu [( 121 )] as a design tool for surface optimization in practice.

Unified deterministic model by Zhu and Hu [( 97 )], Hu and Zhu [( 98 )], and Liu et al. [( 101 )] being able to simulate the entire transition from full film and mixed EHL to dry contact with 3D machined roughness

In order to validate computer simulation models, comparative studies have been conducted in a wide range of lubrication conditions from full-film and mixed EHL down to dry contact. For full-film EHL with various textured surfaces; for example, numerical results were compared with optical interferometry experiments in 2005 by Felix-Quinonez et al. [( 122 )], in 2006 and 2009 by Liu et al. [( 66 , 123 )], and others. Good agreement was found. When the entraining velocity is inchmeal decreased, the EHL film thickness reduces and the solution gradually approaches that of dry contact as numerically demonstrated by Zhu and Hu [( 97 )], Zhu [( 101 )], and in 2010 by Wang et al. [( 124 )]. In Fig. 8 this transition is characterized by a continuous change in contact area ratio A c . Note that A c = 0 indicates a full-film EHL condition with no contact, while A c = 1 represents a complete contact with average film thickness h a = 0. It can be seen that the numerical simulation results agree well with experimental data by Luo and Liu [( 110 )]. Friction calculation results also agree with the trend presented by Guangteng and Spikes [( 108 )]. If the speed becomes extremely low, the mixed lubrication solutions from the unified model by Zhu and Hu [( 97 , 101 )] are found to be in perfect agreement with those obtained from the classic Hertzian contact theory and the FFT-based dry contact model [( 104 , 105 )], as demonstrated by Refs. [ 97 , 101 , 124 ], and others (see Fig. 9 for a comparison example from Ref. [ 124 ]). This doubtlessly proves that the mixed EHL models can be used to simulate dry contact interfaces.

Comparison of numerical simulation results with experimental data by Luo and Liu [( 110 )], for a continuous transition from full film and mixed EHL to boundary lubrication (presented at the STLE Annual Meeting in May, 2010, Las Vegas)

As the speed decreases, mixed EHL solution gradually approaches that of dry contact (from Wang et al. [( 124 )])

The developments of numerical and experimental means have supported in-depth rheology research. Encouraging results have been obtained by Bair and co-workers from accurate measurement of high-pressure rheological properties of a number of lubricants [( 125 , 126 )]. The understanding of the sensitivity of EHL results to lubricant rheological, piezo-viscous, and thermal properties of lubricants have been deepened. The use of realistic shear-thinning models with measured rheological properties in EHL analyses may achieve excellent agreement between measured and simulated film thickness (see Refs. [ 33 , 127 128 ] for some recent contributions).

It has been more than 60 years since the first successful EHL solution was published. The EHL theory and practice have progressed from infancy to maturity. Although the focus of tribology research efforts has been dynamically changed in the last 60 years, EHL has constantly remained an active field, attracting significant attention. There has been enormous achievement both in numerical modeling and experimental investigation. However, much still remains to be done in order to solve real interface problems in engineering practice and to meet new challenges continuously imposed by scientific research and technology development. A brief review of the history, such as the one given here, may be helpful for better foreseeing its prospects and looking into the future.

Basically, real engineering problems associated with power-transmitting interfaces of mechanical components are complicated in nature, and few can be solved with an analytical solution. In early years, due to the lack of powerful analytical and numerical tools, problems always had to be greatly simplified in order to utilize available mathematic solution methods and manual calculation tools at that time. That was why possible existence of lubricants was completely ignored when focusing on surface contact aspects of the interfacial phenomena, and; on the other hand, possible surface contact was completely neglected in lubrication studies. Under the circumstances, contact mechanics and hydrodynamic lubrication theory were established in 1880s and they were developed in parallel thereafter. There was almost no cross from one to the other until recently, solely because handling both contact and lubrication simultaneously was very difficult in the past. In addition to the no lubrication assumption in contact analyses or no surface contact assumption in lubrication studies, there have been other assumptions in place for simplification, including those of ideally rigid (or purely elastic) homogeneous isotropic body materials, simple contact geometry, perfectly smooth surfaces or artificial roughness of simple micro-geometry, and isoviscous Newtonian lubricants, and so on, based on which classic contact and lubrication theories were established.

Research progress in both areas was relatively slow until the late 1950s/early 1960s, and they have been greatly accelerated and classic assumptions released one by one, largely due to significant advancement in digital computer technologies in the last 40–50 years. The EHL theory has been commonly considered to be the most important achievement during this time period in the field of lubrication. As soon as solid surface deformation is introduced into lubrication study, elastic dry contact becomes a special case of EHL, if air can be considered as lubricant with an extremely low viscosity and density. The lubrication research development has been broadened with links to more relevant branches of science. Removal of rigid body and isoviscous lubricant assumptions paves the way toward the interaction with the science of materials and lubricants, giving rise to a new research area of greater importance where more practical problems with lubricated interfaces can be tackled.

Although there have been no theoretical barriers between contact mechanics and lubrication theory after the establishment of EHL, they have still been separately developed because of different focuses and different technical treatments that are necessary in many cases. Separate development is also due to the particular difficulty to simulate both surface contact and lubrication with a unified model. This difficulty has been significantly eased after the mid-1990s when the computer and numerical simulation technologies have been explosively advancing. Now it becomes possible to simulate the entire transition from full-film and mixed lubrication down to boundary lubrication or dry contact with a unified mathematic model and numerical approach. These two separate branches of engineering science; therefore, have been realistically bridged.

The classic contact mechanics (well covered by Johnson [( 129 )] in 1985, and others) and lubrication theories (described by Pinkus and Sternlicht [( 130 )] in 1961, and Hamrock [( 131 )] in 1994, and others), as well as conventional EHL reviewed earlier in this paper, have provided a solid foundation for research and engineering applications. As research has been deepening recently, especially in the last 15 years, the classic assumptions are being released one by one. For example, recently the EHL has been extended in 2007 and 2008 by Liu et al. [( 132 , 133 )] to consider coated or layered materials, in 2000 by Kang et al. [( 134 )] to take into account the debris effect, and in 2007 by Slack et al. [( 135 )] to include the effect of material inclusions. Plastic deformation, which commonly exists and is extremely important in failure analyses, has been included in EHL simulations by Xu et al. [( 136 )] in 1996 for line contacts and by Ren et al. [( 137 , 138 )] in 2010 for point contacts. In-depth studies on nanoscale thin-film lubrication, such as those by Luo, et al. [( 85 )] and Spikes [( 139 )], suggest that the lubricants may no longer behave as continuum media at lubricated interfaces. The above-mentioned studies are only examples but have demonstrated a strong momentum along this direction. Therefore, the conventional terms, such as “contact,” “elasto-,” and “hydrodynamic,” may become insufficient to characterize interfacial phenomena in future research in the course of deepening scientific discovery. Interfacial mechanics is a natural embrace of contact and lubrication theories and a wider advocate for advanced research in much extended integrated scopes.

Contact mechanics and lubrication theories, including EHL, are originally based on continuum mechanics that assumes uniform and continuous materials properties regardless of the scales in space and time. It is often valid when tackling scientific and engineering problems of surface interaction on a macroscale. It has been understood; however, that macroscale phenomena, such as loading capacity, performance, efficiency and durability/reliability of various machines and their components, depend heavily on properties of the interfaces on micro- and nanoscales, where efforts beyond continuum mechanics are needed. With the available mixed EHL models described previously, for instance, the entire transition from full-film and mixed lubrication down to boundary lubrication and surface contact can be numerically simulated, and calculated lubricant film thickness can be only a few nanometers or even zero. Nevertheless, key questions still remain unanswered, such as: Can we convincingly predict interfacial mechanisms with a continuum mechanics based model, if the lubricant film thickness is in the same order of magnitude as lubricant molecules? What is the range of validity of the EHL theory? How can we model nanoscale boundary films that widely exist in mixed and boundary lubrication? How can we characterize frictional behavior at the interfaces under transient thin-film or boundary film conditions? Currently, multiscale models and methods are being developed, linking continuum mechanics with molecule-level event simulations. Recent efforts include those by Luan and Robbins [( 140 )] in 2005, Martini et al. [( 141 )] in 2006, and Zhu et al. [( 142 )] in 2010, and others. This appears to be a new direction of interface research with great potential. Interfacial mechanics can better describe the multiscale nature of the further studies and can be highly engaged with the research vehicles voyaging into the depth of multiscale surface interaction.

Obviously, in-depth studies of interfacial phenomena are multidisciplinary in nature, involving several branches of continuum and discrete mechanics, materials science, lubricant chemistry and rheology, surface physics and topography/metrology, interfacial physics and chemistry, molecular dynamics, system dynamics, thermal dynamics, and electromagnetics, and possibly more. Design and development of advanced interfaces also require the support of design methodology and manufacturing technologies. Interfacial mechanics is going to cover a broader field with melting borders between individual knowledge branches, where more fruitful interdisciplinary and collaborative efforts are committing toward solutions to more difficult scientific and engineering problems. Its science kernel and technological extensions make interfacial mechanics an evolving field flourishing in the time of rapid developments of science-based simulation of engineering systems.

Figure 10 summarizes the above-presented discussions as a pictorial reference. It does by no means present accurate scientific definitions and precise relations.

Interfacial mechanics and its related fields of study

The authors would like to take this opportunity to express their sincere appreciation to the following long-term research partners (in alphabetical order): X. L. Ai, S. Bair, M. Bujold, W. W. Chen, H.S. Cheng, Y.Z. Hu, D. Y. Hua, X. Q. Jin, L.M. Keer, S. B. Liu, Y. C. Liu, J. B. Luo, A. Martini, D. Nelias, N. Ren, W. Z. Wang, and many others.

contact area ratio (area of surface contact divided by area of Hertzian zone)

semiaxis of Hertzian contact ellipse in rolling direction, or radius of Hertzian contact circle, or half-width of Hertzian zone for a line contact

semiaxis of Hertzian contact ellipse in the direction perpendicular to rolling

effective elastic modulus

αE ′, dimensionless material parameter

local film thickness (or gap)

average film thickness (or average gap)

central film thickness, H c = h c /R x

central film thickness predicted by smooth surface EHL theory

minimum film thickness, H m = h m /R x

b / a , contact ellipticity

lubricant conductivity

effective length of line contact

maximum Hertzian pressure

root mean square (rms) surface roughness

effective radius of curvature in x (rolling) direction

(u 1 +u 2 )/ 2 , rolling velocity (or entraining velocity)

η 0 U /(E′R x ), dimensionless speed parameter

velocities of surface 1 and surface 2, respectively

w/(E′R x 2 ) for point contact, or w/(E′R x l e ) for line contact , dimensionless load parameter

pressure–viscosity exponent used in η = η 0 exp( αp )

temperature–viscosity exponent used in η = η 0 exp{ αp+β ( T 0 -T )}

viscosity and viscosity under ambient condition, respectively

h cs /σ, hydrodynamic roughness parameter

h a /σ, film thickness ratio, or specific film thickness, or λ ratio

( R q 1 2 + R q 2 2 ) 0.5 , composite rms roughness

limiting shear stress

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Yacht Engineer Training Courses

MCA Superyacht / SV Engineer training for vessels up to 9000kW and 3000GT

Yacht / SV Engineer Training Overview

Although there are different training routes and licensing authorities/countries under which engineers may qualify to work on superyachts, a common, broadly accepted route is the MCA Engineer Small Vessel Training Route. The MCA recently changed its engineering qualification structure in order to simplify the number and level of qualifications across the industry. They have pulled together pre-existing qualifications, leading to certificates of competency (CoC) restricted to yachts (and other small vessels) only. This single generic qualification is now referred to as " Engineer Officer Small Vessel Certificate of Competency" .

Please consult a recognized training provider before booking any training courses and view the "Engineer Officer Small Vessel of Competency" Marine Information note, found on the MCA website.

Find info, requirements and links to yacht engineer training centres for:

Junior / Assistant Engineer
2nd Engineer Officer < 9000kW
Chief Engineer Officer < 9000kW

Caucasian Male Superyacht Engineer working on the engine room, inspecting the generator with checklist folder and pen in his hand

Junior / Assistant Engineer:

An STCW : EVERY crew member onboard must hold a valid STCW
An ENG1 Medical Certificate : EVERY crew member onboard must hold a valid ENG1
AEC 1: The Approved Engine Course 1 is an entry-level qualification for the MCA engineering training schedule and is regarded as the first step on the ladder. It is generally a 5-day / 30-hour course that aims to provide candidates with practical basic hands-on training and theoretical knowledge of diesel engines. The main intention of this course is to teach the knowledge to serve in an ENTRY LEVEL capacity in the engineering department or for a crew member primarily working in another department to assist with engineering functions, for example, a deck/engineer. Holding an AEC certificate will allow you to be a chief engineer on a yacht over 24m and less than 200 Gross Tons or act as an assistant engineer on vessels over 200 GT up to 60NM from a safe haven.
AEC 2: The Approved Engine Course II follows on from AEC I knowledge. It contains a more practical element when compared to the AEC I. This course has been designed so that engineering qualifications are transferable between different industry sectors such as yachts, workboats, tugs, fishing vessels and so on and there will no longer be offshore limits.

The AEC is your gateway ticket into becoming an engineer, it is, therefore, essential to hold this qualification, gain sea time and work on your training record book (TRB) in order to progress in the engine room.

Becoming a 2 nd Engineer:

There are three routes to obtaining a 2 nd Engineer Officer Small Vessel Certificate of Competency’ (Previously known as Y4):

Standard Route
Experienced Seafarer Route
Alternative Route (For Graduate Engineers)

Standard Route:

This standard route benefits those who study through an accepted route of education involving MSQ (Maritime Studies Qualifications) modules. Completion of these will result in a Diploma in Maritime Studies: Small Vessel Engineer’. This route is extremely beneficial to superyacht engineers because of the reduced sea time required and because some of the syllabi can be completed on-board.

In order to follow this route, you must:

Hold a Diploma in Maritime Studies: Small Vessel Engineer
Complete Approved Engine Course I (AEC I) as well as The Approved Engine Course II (AEC II)
Have completed 12 months’ combined sea service and workshop training, which must include: - 6 months’ seagoing service engaged in watchkeeping or Unmanned Machinery Space (UMS) duties on vessels of at least 350 kW; - 5 months’ seagoing service on vessels of at least 350 kW; - 2 weeks MCA-approved Initial Workshop Skills Training; - A further 2 weeks seagoing service on vessels of at least 350 kW or 2 weeks of MCA-approved additional Workshop Skills Training.
Complete the MNTB Small Vessel Training Record Book (TRB)
Complete the Diploma in Maritime Studies: Small Vessel Engineer
Pass the MCA-approved written exams for - Marine Diesel Engineering ; - Auxiliary Equipment Part – 1 ; - Operational procedures, Basic Hotel Services and Ship construction
Hold the applicable ancillary and safety courses: - All STCW Basic Training Modules - PSCRB - Advanced Fire Fighting - Proficiency in Medical First Aid - Human Element, Leadership and Management (Operational Level)
Hold a valid ENG1 Medical Certificate or MCA accepted Equivalent
Complete MCA oral examination for Second Engineer Officers on Small Vessels less than 9000 kW, less than 3000 GT, unlimited area, III/2 (syllabus available online, go to www.gov.uk and search “Small Vessel Oral Examination Syllabus”).

Experienced Seafarer Route:

This route is for existing seafarers serving on small vessels. You will not be required to complete the Diploma in Maritime Studies: Small Vessel Engineer , however you will need to complete a preparatory college course and SQA written examinations.

To be eligible to register for a study programme you must meet the following requirements:

Have completed 24 months’ seagoing service on vessels of at least 200 kW
Hold an Approved Engine Course (Both AEC 1 & AEC 2 )
Hold STCW Basic Safety Training certificates: - Personal Survival Techniques (STCW Code A-VI/1-1) - Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting (STCW Code A-VI/1-2) - Elementary First Aid (STCW Code A-VI/1-3) - Personal Safety and Social Responsibilities (STCW Code A-VI/1-4)

Requirements / Notice Eligibility to sit MCA Oral Exam:

In addition to the above, candidates must complete the following in order to be issued with a notice of eligibility (noe) to sit an mca oral examination:.

Additional 11 months’ seagoing on a vessel of 350 kW (must include a minimum of 6 months' seagoing service engaged in watchkeeping or UMS duties)
2 weeks MCA-approved initial Workshop Skills Training
A further 2 weeks seagoing service on vessels of at least 350 kW or 2 weeks of MCA-approved additional Workshop Skills Training.

Certificate of Competency (Coc):

In addition to completing all of the experienced seafarer route requirements above, the candidate must:

Complete and pass the following courses:
MCA Marine Diesel Engineering
MCA Auxiliary Equipment Part - 1
Operational procedures, Basic Hotel Services and Ship Construction

2. Hold the applicable ancillary and safety course certificates listed in section 5:

- All STCW Basic Training Certificates - PSCRB - Advanced Fire Fighting - Proficiency in Medical First Aid - Human Element, Leadership and Management (HELM Operational Level)

3. Hold a valid ENG1 Medical or ENG1 Medical Equivalent Certificate 4. Pass the MCA oral examination for Second Engineer Officers on Small Vessels less than 9000 kW, less than 3000 GT, unlimited area, III/2 (syllabus available online, go to www.gov.uk and search “Small Vessel Oral Examination Syllabus”)

Alternative Route: (For Graduate Engineers:)

This route is for those candidates who hold a relevant engineering degree/diploma/apprenticeship. These qualifications should be sent to an MCA-approved training provider who will analyze their relevance and explain what the individual should do in order to obtain a 2 nd Engineer Officer Small Vessel CoC.

More information on the types of Graduate and Apprenticeship holders that qualify for this training route can be found in section 3.5 of the MIN 524 Notice .

If you are deemed eligible to enter into this programme you will need to apply directly to an MCA-approved nautical college. In order to find an appropriate college, search www.gov.uk for “MCA-approved nautical colleges".

In order to gain the Certificate of Competency you must:

Complete a minimum of 6 months’ seagoing service engaged in watchkeeping duties
Additional seagoing service / Workshop Skill training requirements based on the relevant HND, HNC or Engineering Apprenticeship, as laid out in point 3.5.3 of the MIN 534 Notice.
Hold an Approved Engine Course I (AEC I)
Hold an Approved Engine Course II (AEC II)
Successfully Complete the MCA-approved modules and pass the corresponding exams for:- Marine Diesel Engineering - Auxiliary Equipment Part - 1 - Operational Procedures, Basic Hotel Services & Ship Construction
Hold the applicable ancillary and safety course certificates:- All STCW Basic Training Certificates - PSCRB - Advanced Fire Fighting - Proficiency in Medical First Aid - Human Element, Leadership and Management (HELM Operational Level)
Hold a valid ENG1 Medical or ENG1 Medical Equivalent Certificate
Pass the MCA oral examination for Second Engineer Officers on Small Vessels.

Becoming a Chief Engineer :

Chief Engineer 3000kw & <500GT
Chief Engineer 9000kw & <3000GT

Chief Engineer Officer < 3000kW & 500GT

In order to qualify for the issue of this Certificate of Competency you must meet the following requirements:

Complete a minimum of 6 months’ seagoing service as a Second Engineer on vessels of at least 350 kW (While holding an SV Second Engineer Officer < 9000kW & 3000GT STCW Convention regulation III/2 Certificate of Competency.
Successfully complete the MCA- approved modules and pass the corresponding written examinations for - Chief Engineer Statutory and Operational Requirements - Auxiliary Equipment part - 2
Hold the applicable ancillary and safety course certificates: - All STCW Basic Training Certificates - PSCRB - Advanced Fire Fighting - Proficiency in Medical First Aid - Human Element, Leadership and Management (HELM Management Level)
Pass MCA oral examination for Chief Engineer Officer, less than 3000 kW, less than 500 GT, unlimited area, STCW Reg III/3

Chief Engineer SV <3000 GT & <9,000kW

24 months of seagoing service which must include:12 months as an SV Second Engineer or SV Chief Engineer while holding the applicable STCW Convention regulation III/2 Certificate of Competency:

- 6 months of sea service on 350 kW vessels & 6 months seagoing service on vessels 750 kW. (greater or equal to kW provided)

Chief Engineer (SV) Statutory and Operational Requirements (Not required if SV Chief Engineer less than 3000 kW, less than 500 GT CoC already held)
Chief Engineer (SV) Auxiliary Equipment Part 2 (Not required if SV Chief Engineer less than 3000 kW, less than 500 GT CoC already held)
Applied Marine Engineering
Complete either:a) MCA-approved modules and pass the corresponding written examinations for: General Engineering Science I & General Engineering Science II (exemptions may apply for candidates holding appropriate engineering degree) OR The Diploma in Maritime Studies: Small Vessel and the Diploma in Maritime Studies: Small Vessel Chief Engineer
All STCW Basic Training Certificates
Advanced Fire Fighting
Proficiency in Medical First Aid
Human Element, Leadership and Management (HELM Management Level)
Pass the MCA oral examination for Chief Engineer Officer, less than 9,000 kW, less than 3,000 GT, unlimited area, STCW Reg III/3

FOR MORE INFO GO TO MCA WEBSITE MIN524

Alternative Routes to Become a Yacht Engineer:

The above method is the new MCA-approved and advised route to become a YACHT engineer, there are however other options available to you:

Experienced Marine Engineers: Marine engineers with qualifications for larger vessels, such as commercial tankers, container vessels, dredgers etc. or those with merchant navy tickets are usually able to work on yachts with these tickets. It is important to contact the MCA who will review these qualifications and ascertain a plan of action for you.

USCG: It is also possible to qualify as a yacht engineer through the United States Coast Guard route, again different flag states will have different requirements and it is advisable to contact the MCA for any further advice or information.

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MED-DOOZ is a 33.0 m Motor Yacht, built in Italy by Custom Line and delivered in 2022. She is one of 42 Navetta 33 models.

Her top speed is 15.0 kn, her cruising speed is 12.0 kn, and she boasts a maximum cruising range of 1850.0 nm at 10.0 kn, with power coming from two MAN diesel engines. She can accommodate up to 10 guests in 5 staterooms, with 6 crew members waiting on their every need. She has a gross tonnage of 262.0 GT and a 7.68 m beam.

She was designed by Zuccon International Project , who also designed the interior. Zuccon International Project has designed 675 yachts and designed the interior of 641 yachts for yachts above 24 metres.

The naval architecture was developed by Ferretti Engineering Department , who has architected 610 other superyachts in the BOAT Pro database - she is built with a Teak deck, a GRP hull, and GRP superstructure.

MED-DOOZ is one of 2111 motor yachts in the 30-35m size range, and, compared to similarly sized motor yachts, her volume is 75.34 GT above the average.

MED-DOOZ is currently sailing under the Cayman Islands flag, the 2nd most popular flag state for superyachts with a total of 1414 yachts registered. She is known to be an active superyacht and has most recently been spotted cruising near Italy. For more information regarding MED-DOOZ's movements, find out more about BOATPro AIS .

Specifications

Name: MED-DOOZ
Yacht Type: Motor Yacht
Yacht Subtype: Semi-displacement
Model: Navetta 33
Builder: Custom Line
Naval Architect: Ferretti Engineering Department
Exterior Designer: Zuccon International Project
Interior Designer: Zuccon International Project
Refits: 2024

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Temporary housekeeping Steward - 70m + Private Motor yacht

Viking Crew are looking for a temporary housekeeping Steward to join a 70m+ motor yacht Male due to cabin arrangements Experienced with housekeeping, inventory, uniforms and linens <...

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Temporary housekeeping stewardess 70m+ motor yacht.

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Ferretti Yachts and Riva to attend Moscow Boat Show 2013

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Written by Zuzana Bednarova

To be represented by Premium Yachts, Ferretti Yachts and Riva , two prestigious brands of the Ferretti Group, will be present at the Moscow International Boat Show 2013, displaying motor yacht Ferretti 530 as well as Riva Iseo yacht tender.

Luxury motor yacht Ferretti 530

Luxury yacht Ferretti 530 was very keen to undertake in collaboration once again with AYT – Advanced Yacht Technology, Ferretti Group Engineering Division and Studio Zuccon International Project . The compact dimensions, 16 meters long and almost 5 meters wide, allow the 530 yacht to deliver grand Italian luxury and cruising immersed in such comfort until now unheard of in a yacht of this size.

Ferretti 530 yacht boasts three revolutionary innovations: the full beam master cabin with chaise longue and two large open view windows that make it a real suite at sea level bathed in light, tones and the natural essences of teak. Moving the galley from the center to the aft section creates a unique open space that includes the saloon, galley, cocktail bar and the dining area, the cockpit area continues thanks to the tilting window. The roll bar free sky lounge and the spoiler allow the 530 a sporty appearance combined with elegantly formal lines.

Ferretti 530 Yacht - Interior

Riva , the iconic Ferretti Group brand, presented a new model at the historical Lake d’Iseo shipyards in July 2011. Featuring elegance and ease of transportation as its distinctive characteristics, Iseo superyacht tender , a 27 foot runabout, is destined to become a must-have for those who love cruising on both lakes and the sea, and, most importantly, design enthusiasts. It is also perfect for anyone wishing to enhance their yacht with an exclusive tender that will never go unnoticed.

Riva Iseo superyacht tender

Due to its ease of manoeuvrability and size, Iseo yacht tender is also ideal as a tender for large yachts. Innovative and elegant, it can also guarantee comfort in bad weather conditions. Besides the electrohydraulic bimini top, it was also designed with a waterproof, automobile-style soft top which protects those on board against water and the wind during cruising.

Please contact CharterWorld - the luxury yacht charter specialist - for more on superyacht news item "Ferretti Yachts and Riva to attend Moscow Boat Show 2013".

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YachtForums Administrator

Benetti appoints Ultra Marine as Composite Line Agent for the Russian Market Viareggio – May 2005 - For Immediate Release. Benetti announces a new agreement signed in April 2005 with Ultra Marine for representation in the Russian Federation Market Ultra Marine, who has been the Azimut dealer in this market for several years, will also be the exclusive sales and marketing agent for Benetti Tradition line (30m/100’) and the Benetti Classic line ( 35m / 115’ and 37m / 120’). To seal this important appointment, Ultra Marine and Benetti recently exhibited at the Moscow Boat Show last April. They will also be present at the Moscow Extravaganza in October 2005. Benetti and Ultra Marine look forward to a long and close association in this important market. Contacts : For sales information, please contact: Mark Cavendish; Benetti Yachts Email: mcavendish@**************** Mr. Georgi Tchoumbouridze Ultra Marine Savvinskaya nab.3. Moscow. 119 121. Russia Tel: [7] 095 980 7700 Email: [email protected]

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Home Forums > DISCUSSIONS ON YACHT BUILDERS > Motor Yachts > Benetti Yacht > Benetti Appoints Russian Agent. Discussion in 'Benetti Yacht' started by YachtForums, Jun 6, 2005. You need to be registered and signed in to view this content. YachtForums, Jun 6, 2005 #1. YachtForums Administrator. Joined: Dec 22, 2002 Messages:

The 5 tragic minutes that sank a superyacht

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Yachts like this